FALL 2025
ASTR 303
Homework #1
The difference between temperature and heat is more of a relationship, although there is a distinction. Temperature is a measure of kinetic energy, or the energy being emitted through the movement of particles within an object. Whereas heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects.
Temperature can be measured using multiple scales, including Kelvin, Celsius & Fahrenheit. These measurement scales can be utilized to determine the amount of kinetic energy stored within an object and its particles. Heat is typically measured in Joules; this system of measurement determines the amount of thermal energy being transferred between objects.
The distinction between red & blue light has to do with an object's temperature. Directly relational to temperature is the color of visible light that is emitted from the object. Objects that emit red light are generally cooler than objects that emit blue light. When speaking of stars specifically; red light ≈ 3,500°Kelvin, while blue light ≈ 45,000°K. Ultimately the difference between red & blue light is temperature.
Homework #2
In his article, “Coming to Our Senses”, Neil deGrasse Tyson (2001) explained, “...we register the world’s stimuli in logarithmic rather than linear increments.” Meaning that we have a wide array of senses and uses for them; however they lack precision. If I were to be given a device called the ‘smell-o-scope’ which makes my sense of smell one million times better, my life would completely change. The best known overall sense of smell in our earthly animal kingdom is that of the African Elephant with around 2,000 scent-detecting genes, or nearly 5x that of human olfactory systems. Some bears have more than 2000x the scent range of humans with around a 20-mile radius; however, this is specific to certain scents & pheromones; whereas the African Elephant can precisely differentiate a wide array of smells. If I had a device that increased my sense of smell 50,000% more times than that of an African Elephant I would be able to smell the electrons on an oxygen molecule. Every breath would be a feast of scents; some intriguing, others repulsive. The amount of time invested in imagining what smells were coming from where & how would take up all of my time. I would begin to learn how to navigate the world through a precise understanding of scent related standards. My entire perception of reality would be turned on its head as I would be able to distinguish a multitude of scents & pheromones; even possibly discovering new smells yet to be discovered. I wonder what alien armpits on Mars smell like.
Homework #4
Astronomers Just Found a “Zombie Star” With a Shocking Backstory by NASA Hubble Mission Team
“Astronomers using NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope have uncovered a stellar oddity: a massive white dwarf star born from the violent merger of two stars, rather than the quiet death of a single one.” (2025)
This is an amazing new discovery for astronomy as previously we had only known white dwarf stars to be created from the nuclear fusion produced by a red super giant, and to be relatively small compared to most other star-bodies. However this “super-massive white dwarf” may change the perspective of what we think is possible.The idea being that a collision of two smaller white-dwarfs, or a white-dwarf and a subgiant, created the larger white dwarf than we are used to seeing; and which also accounts for the increase of carbon that can be seen in its spectrum.
Due to the type of ultraviolet light being emitted along with the “lack of atmosphere & abundance of carbon” made it difficult for us to discover this super-massive white dwarf until Hubble’s sensitive lens became trained in its direction.
This discovery also brings about the idea that not everything we understand about the mass, diameter & luminosity of a star may be as simple as we previously deduced.
Homework #5
Challenges of Observing Sirius B:
Sirius A (the brightest star in the night sky) creates an intense glare next to the more subdued white dwarf that is Sirius B.
Being a white dwarf, Sirius B (7,500 mile diameter), is miniscule next to the magnitude of Sirius A (1.5 million mile diameter).
The relatively small distance of separation in their orbit makes it extraordinarily difficult to distinguish the two celestial bodies from one another.
Earth’s atmospheric conditions distort starlight, which is even further exacerbated by the low trajectory of Sirius B on the Earth's terrestrial horizon.
This atmospheric condition coupled with the limitations of telescopes make it near impossible to “see”, even with the highest of reflectors installed.
Ultimately, all of these “distractions” including the sheer distance between our point of observation and the instruments being utilized, make Sirius B one of the most difficult objects to observe in our night sky, and yet… Depending on your sources…Griaule & Dieterlen or Walter Van Beek; the Dogon Tribe knew of the existence of Sirius B as far back possibly as 3200 B.C., how? These are not a "scientific" people if you will; no fancy laboratories, or perfectly fixed telescopes calculating the discrete maths required to train our telescopic gaze upon such a minute celestial body for any substantial period of time. Much less the desire to inquire about such things. Yet through their own account The Dogon Tribe has been passing down knowledge of the star's existence through oral tradition & ceremony (Sigui) for thousands of years, in comparison to western science's discovery of Sirius B in 1862; this seems so far-fetched, how is this possible? It's simple really…extra-terrestrial intervention & channeled-information dissemination. The Dogon explain that the aquatic-celestial beings from the Sirius system, The Nommo, came to their ancestors and shared the knowledge of the star system with them. Furthermore, The Dogon Tribe goes on to further explain the presence of another celestial body in this “binary” system, what we might consider to be Sirius C. Although modern scientific instruments & data have ruled out another “stellar mass” this third body they describe could very well be a brown dwarf or even a little itsy-bitsy teeny-weeny planetary body! This is all speculation. I have no idea of the truth of any of it, yet I stand behind it:)
Homework #6
JWST Detects Evidence of a Neutron Star in Fiery Supernova Remains by Laura Baisas
“‘The mystery over whether a neutron star is hiding in the dust has lasted for more than 30 years and it is exciting that we have solved it,’ study co-author and University College London astrophysicist Mike Barlow said.” (Baisas, 2024)
This article published by Popular Science in 2024 is about a study completed by a team of scientists working with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in which a 40 year mystery about a certain remnant in the Large Magellanic Cloud has been revealed. Supernova (SN)1987A is the first to be seen by the naked eye since 1604, and since February of ‘84 we have been looking… detecting. Finally, with much dedication and the steady, long-trained eye of the JWST, scientists saw a neutron star. The importance of this is the understanding that SN1987A was understood to be a “core-collapse supernova”, or rather that which could become a neutron star or a black hole.
After gathering the current information and some proper data analysis, the researchers were able to produce the best-known evidence we have for a physical body neutron star. This is no longer mathematical & imaginative possibility, we have now put evidence to theory!
Homework #7
Did Jocelyn Bell Burnell “deserve” the 1974 Nobel Prize in physics that was awarded to her supervisor, Anthony Hewish and his collaborator Martin Ryle? “Deserve” is a difficult concept to determine as the position one takes ultimately dictates the perspective of worthiness. From one position, as even Bell Burnell explains, “...it is the supervisor who has the final responsibility for the success or failure of the project.” (Burnell, 1979-2004) With this perspective it is quite easily accepted that the Nobel Prize committee was correct in their decision to give the award to Hewish & Ryle. Furthermore, if one were as humble as Bell Burnell it would be simple to support such a decision.
However… with a more trepidatious perspective, I would personally be apprehensive to accept this explanation with such grace, much less to give it myself. From my perspective, I think Dame Bell Burnell should have been included in the group that received the award. A bit of background research tells us that up to 3 people are allowed to be included in each Nobel Prize awarded, and for the sheer dedication to the observation, she should have been included in the highest-level of recognition. Similarly, plenty of graduate students have been awarded the Nobel Prize themselves so that being the limiting factor is absurd. Although the principal investigator should not be forgotten, as each student has their supervisors and team they are reporting to, Bell Burnell was the driving force and the believer that kept the search alive. Through her superb data collection & analysis, Hewish & Ryle were able to explain the observed existence of pulsars for the first time. For what it's worth I believe she was robbed.
Homework #9
The stellar landscape is a conglomerate of mass, motion & chaos. The potential for how such luminous objects are created and the life cycles of each type of experience has been well documented by astrophysicists. The tracing of main sequence stars, those fusing hydrogen to helium in their cores, to their ultimate demise in the stellar graveyard has been hashed out & debated to some ends. Main sequence stars are those that are within their “earliest” forms of existence, those stars still under-going nuclear fusion in phases of degenerative gases. After this reaction process is complete and hydrostatic equilibrium fails, what becomes of the star? White dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes are the stellar graveyard that remains when the main sequence star's lives expire. The fundamental differences between white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes include many factors, a major component is the mass of the main sequence star that these stellar remnants evolve from. The mass of the main sequence star, that was previously mentioned, itself has a direct influence on the hydrostatic equilibrium and the type of reaction that occurs within its core after nuclear fusion runs its course. The general-basic steps that a star's life follows is: giant interstellar molecular clouds coalescing and eventually collapsing into a protostar, main sequence star (the mass of the stage is the "initial mass” that determines the fate of a star lifespan), then a giant star into a red supergiant or supergiant respectively, followed by a massive interstellar detonation of a planetary nebula or supernova; the remnants of which will become our white dwarfs, neutron stars & black holes. The focus of this paper will be on this “stellar graveyard” and these massive objects that inhabit it.
Main sequence stars with a mass between .4 - 8 solar masses will become white dwarfs. Our local Sun is one such star. Upon converting all of its stores of hydrogen to helium the star may begin fusing helium to carbon for a short time, regardless this process continues until the pressure of nuclear fusion can no longer resist the force of gravity and the outer layers of the red supergiant are ejected in a planetary nebula explosion; leaving behind a white dwarf star. If nuclear fusion is no longer the force withstanding gravity, what is the force maintaining white dwarfs existence? Without getting into the minutiae of electron degeneracy, and the depths of the maths required to truly explain it… this is a different form of “pressure” which arises due to the laws of quantum physics dictating that no two electrons can share same quantum coordinate, leading to a pressure that can withstand the force of gravity. This too however has its limits. The Chandrasekhar limit, or the “upper mass limit” of a stellar remnant white dwarf is the maximum mass before greater effects than nuclear fusion & electron degeneracy are required to withstand gravity, those “greater effects” will be discussed in a moment. White Dwarf stars account for nearly 97% of the stellar graveyard within our own Milky Way Galaxy at an estimated 10 billion. Although these small and dim objects are some of the most difficult to detect, scientists have developed means to observe them across the entire light spectrum, from radio to x-ray frequencies and even in the visible spectrum with instruments like the Hubble Space Telescope; although most require the assistance of an accreting companion in a binary system to be observed.
The "greater effects” referenced earlier is that of neutron degeneracy; which is a process that occurs when the stellar remnant has a mass above the Chandreshakar limit, typically within main sequence stars that are between 8 - 25 solar masses this is the destination it is headed. A neutron star has undergone a massive Type II supernova, in which the initial mass of its main sequence counterpart has been ejected and the remnant is withstanding gravity by a cacophony of quantum alchemy. Neutron degeneracy occurs when the force of gravity is so great that the protons & electrons within the stellar remnant are combined to create neutrons of themselves, creating a type of pressure that then takes over to withstand gravity. One metric not referenced intentionally until now, whether within the main sequence or the stellar graveyard, is that radius is another key factor in understanding these massive stellar objects. In the graveyard specifically, a white dwarf is typically the diameter of planet earth with a cubic centimeter weighing about 1 ton; whereas a neutron star has a diameter about the size of a city but with a cubic centimeter weight averaging 400 million tons. Density becomes a quantum game. Although not as abundant as white dwarfs within the universe, we have developed the ability to observe them quite readily. Due to angular momentum and the sheer force that creates these stellar remnants they spin at speeds nearly incomprehensible to the human brain, we call these stars “pulsars” they are an example that is observed as if a lighthouse in the sky. Emitting radiation in x-ray, radio & gamma rays and within the visible light spectrum. These pulses of radiation are extremely precise and give astronomers strong indications of their specific existence.
Any main sequence star that exceeds 25 solar masses will end its stellar lifetime as a remnant black hole (this is different from a supermassive blackhole, which will not be discussed here). This is where math & practical science become a bit out of the ordinary, and difficult to comprehend. To put it as simply as possible, when a massive stellar object burns through all of its fuel during nuclear fusion and it begins to collapse due to gravitational force, if it has more than 25 solar masses of material after supernova (sometimes called hypernova) it will be compressed into an infinitesimally small point; aptly titled the singularity. This singularity creates such a massive stretching of spacetime that a circumference called the event horizon becomes a distance at which no visible object, including photons, can escape the pull of the infinite-mass point. How do you observe something that does not allow even light to escape its grasp? Light is the main source of information when observing any stellar object… Now what? Technically the only black holes scientists will be able to observe currently are those in binary systems as accretion from a cosmic partner emits x-rays as matter is dragged towards the singularity. Furthermore, gravitational waves have been discovered that are an outcome of “black-hole mergers” or when two massive stellar bodies collide and send out a ripple across the fabric of spacetime itself.
As we have discussed, a dominant factor in the lifespan of stellar evolution is mass (initial & remnant), diameter and in-turn density. Key differences between the remnants of main sequence stars are the processes with which hydrostatic equilibrium is maintained; whether through nuclear fusion, electron/neutron degeneracy or out-right unfathomable (in regards to the in-workings of a singularity) each process is part of the creation of different stellar bodies. It is important to study the stellar graveyard as these insights may lead us to clues as to the formation of galaxies and ultimately the universe as we know it. Without the theoretical ability to “see” a singularity, will we ever be able to gather the details necessary to determine the means by which our physical existence became?
COMM 300
Theory of Planned Behavior: The Influences on Student Behavior Intention
Literature Review
The Reasoned Action Approach (RAA) is the brain child of Martin Fishbein & Icek Ajzen explained in their 2010 book Predicting and Changing Behavior. It is a more developed, refined & synthesized version of the Theory of Reasoned Action [1979 (TRA)] & the Theory of Planned Behavior [1991 (TPB)] developed previously by either author respectively. Where TRA by Fishbein incites the predictors of intention as: individuals attitude towards a behavior & subjective norms; TPB by Ajzen expands this to include the new construct of: perceived behavioral control. These three key components: attitude toward behavior, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control are the foundation for everything that ultimately evolved into RAA. Moving forward the acronym ‘TPB’ will be utilized to describe all three, as it is the most widely used by the selected references.
TPB will be the guiding framework to understand students' behavioral intentions in pursuing higher education. It is important to discover key predictors & patterns in regards to student decision-making with higher education, as this discovery may lead to further understanding & clarification of student needs along their pursuit. Furthermore, being able to understand student behavioral intentions is important for improving educational outcomes overall. As times change, students' educational intentions alter and the “requirement” for students to pursue higher education shifts. More opportunities become available without the necessary need for higher education… What fuels students to continue? In order to better understand what drives students to continue their higher education, this literature review incorporates foundational & applied research on TPB to understand how attitude towards a behavior, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control influence a students’ decision-making & behavioral intentions regarding the continued pursuit of higher education.
Attitude toward behavior is an individual’s evaluation of performing the behavior. Subjective norms are the perceived social pressures to perform or not perform the behavior. Perceived behavioral control is the individual’s belief in their ability to perform the behavior. Attitude, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control contribute independently and in tandem to become ‘behavioral intention’. Their relative importance can vary depending on the behavior & its context. A possible example of subjective norms being the most influential in a behavior would be: recycling in a community that values sustainability. If the behavior requires skill or effort then perceived behavioral control may become more influential (i.e. quitting smoking). However, TPB claims all three will eventually play their role in the action of an individual's behavior.
Although TPB has been very influential itself in many areas of research (much of which includes empirical support), it still has its limitations which the authors wholeheartedly accept and account for. A brief listing of these limitations include: assumptions of rationality, limited predictive power for unplanned or spontaneous behaviors, cultural bias, contextual limitations, an overemphasis on cognitive factors, measurement & operational issues, along with the static nature of the model itself… TPB assumes a relatively stable relationship between beliefs, intentions & behaviors which can not be truly representative of the dynamic nature of reality and human behavior. However, it does lay a theoretical insight into the foundation of understanding students' decision making & behavioral intentions regarding continued pursuit of higher education. By identifying the most influential predictors of specific behaviors for graduate study or drop-out interventions can be created to properly empower students to continue their higher education. Giving educators the tools necessary to design strategies that encourage unassailable behavioral intentions in students towards higher education and better learning outcomes for all is critical for the evolution of mankind.
In a 2018 research article, An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Student Retention, Dewberry & Jackson propose the application of the theoretical framework of TPB into the context of higher education; more specifically the testing of its ability to predict student behavioral intentions in regards to withdrawal or graduation, as compared to the previously preferred Student-Integration Model (SIM). The researchers conducted two studies in which they applied either framework independently and drew further conclusions. It is well documented that SIM has very little, if any, predictive power when determining student behavioral intention. On the contrary however, the researchers were able to determine that specifically, attitude & perceived behavioral control are very strong predictors of student retention in this context. The researchers were able to account for half of the variance in students' intention to withdraw (or continue) by utilizing TPB and the constructs that it provides. This alone gives a strong argument for the further research & application of TPB within educational settings. If a cause & effect relationship can be found between any of said predictors and the behavior they elicit, TPB is the tool which can pave the way to discovery.
Catherine Fitchen, et. al. (2016) tested whether TPB scales - attitudes, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control - can predict graduation & dropout behaviors within college students. These researchers completed two studies. Study 1 is longitudinal and measures TPB scales with actual graduation or drop out status 3-4 years later, concluding perceived behavioral control to be the strongest contributor in this context. Study 2 is a cross-sectional study in which they compared student intentions to graduate, with the scales mentioned above and found a strong positive correlation between high scores in attitude, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control and positive behavioral intention. This research does a tremendous job of contributing statistical data towards this topic, giving strong statistical evidence for the power of TPB in positive education interventions. Completing a 3-4 year longitudinal study with direct application of TPB in a setting of higher education is crucial to the understanding of researchers in this field and educators in general. Furthermore, this research suggests the significance of early intervention & comprehension of student behavioral intentions and the influences that are most impacting their decision-making when continuing their pursuit of higher education.
The major difference between Sreekla & Firsads’ (2016) article, Determinants Of Educational Continuation Decision Of Higher Secondary School Students In India: An Application Of Theory Of Planned Behavior, and the previous discussion, is the age at which the participants were surveyed. This study based out of Kerala, India focused on those students preparing to graduate high school, and the determinants involved in the decision-making process for continuing their education or dropping out; especially those due to the more pressured subjective norms of a collectivist society. Although there is little by way of quantitative exploration in this research, the significance of cultural values and their effect on a student's behavioral intention is featured exquisitely. Of a slight contradiction however, subjective norms (even within a collectivist society) were the weakest of the predictors of intention. The strongest predictor being attitude, followed by perceived behavioral control. Similar to the Dewberry & Jackson article, these researchers found that beyond any socio-economic background the decision to continue higher education is heavily influenced by cognitive/psychological factors as well, namely; attitude, subjective norms & perceived behavioral control. The degree to which each has an effect on a student's behavior mostly depends on context, and it is not quite a one size fits all model, but rather a means to gain insight into a students personal experience.
As with the previous study, the research conducted by Tian & Jing (2024) focused on high school students. However, due to the development of a large vocational education system in China (the region of the studies origin) the authors focused on the decision students make to pursue a more formal higher education or that of vocational study. With this perspective in mind, the authors discovered that within this context , students’ intention to pursue vocational education is shaped largely by their attitude about attending this type of schooling and the subjective norms involved with the influence of others. Albeit shaped by their attitudes, the research itself suggests that although students believe they could attend vocational schooling… they are not necessarily eager to. Subjective norms again reflect highly of a collectivist culture like China’s so this outcome is partially expected. This study brings further attention to the parental influence (filial piety, Confucian cultural tradition) in regard to behavioral intention. Altogether this research increases the viability of TPB in predicting behavior, simply by observing intention with care for context.
Of all the research discussed thus far, Mosbah, Al-Jubari & Mohd Talib (2019) took TPB and dissected its application. They developed two qualitative studies in which they compared the predictive power of the aforementioned Student-Integration Model (SIM) and that of TPB. Additionally, the sample they chose is of a bit older age bracket, average 30-35 years. Their angle is predicting behavioral intentions of postgraduate study, specifically of intentions to withdrawal. Again, attitude is recorded as the strongest predictor followed by perceived behavioral control. Within this context subjective norms had no significant effect. The more positive a student's attitude towards postgraduate study, the higher their intention to do it. The attitude itself becomes the inspiration and the snowball has begun. By focusing on postgraduate education, this research broadened the scope of the application of TPB not only in students' behavioral intentions when initiating their higher education but also when considering progressing it to the next level.
To synthesize & evaluate the findings of this literature review: context & control are key, but attitude is everything. Across all of the studies we reviewed, attitude towards a behavior is the top predictor of students behavioral intention concerning continued higher education or dropping out. Perceived behavioral control is a close second and subjective norms, although influenced by context, never poses much pressure on students' behavioral intention. As mentioned to begin this review, TPB has many known limitations. Nevertheless, the methodological strengths of the research articles we reviewed is unhindered. How can this be? Researchers have developed TPB into a plethora of applications and have created custom scales that incorporate the key predictors of TPB while accounting for possible weaknesses in the design. The biggest representation of this can be seen across our review as the predictors did not all have the same influence on student behavioral intention, but could be accounted for by things like region of origin & context. Overall, with the proper structuring of research design, TPB is highly adaptable & capable of determining the predictors that lead to students' continued pursuit of higher education.
Early identification & intervention of students who have low attitude scores toward graduation or who sense lack of control in the decision itself can be mentored or offered support programs. Institutions & administrators should focus on enhancing students' positive attitude toward continued higher education & graduation within their program of study. Additionally, providing the resources for flexible pathways, and the removal of barriers to ensure students feel able to stay in school, and capable of thriving simultaneously. For what little it's worth, I hope that this review has inspired you to have a positive attitude towards your continued learning!
COMM 350
Cross-Cultural Backgrounds Influence on Understanding Emotions & Attitudes Through Paralanguage
Interpretive Proposal
Co-authors: Abraham Romm, Yvonne Velazquez
Introduction
Communication styles vary greatly across cultures, and one area that highlights these differences is paralanguage, the nonverbal aspects of speech such as pitch, tone, volume, and speech rate. These vocal cues often convey emotions or attitudes that words alone cannot fully express, yet how people interpret them depends heavily on cultural background. Paralanguage plays a critical role in how individuals understand and communicate emotion, but these interpretations are shaped by culturally learned expectations about how meaning is expressed through the voice. In diverse communities like San Diego, misunderstandings often arise not from what is said but how it is said , as people rely on their cultural frameworks to make sense of vocal cues. Research shows that mismatches in paralanguage use can create communicative interference and lead to inaccurate interpretations, especially when individuals come from different cultural backgrounds (Torres et al., 2024). Similarly, studies of high context cultures demonstrate that indirect vocal cues and subtle shifts in tone carry culturally specific meanings that speakers and listeners must negotiate during interaction (Danielewicz-Betz, 2016). Because San Diego is a highly multicultural region where young adults regularly communicate across cultures, examining how they interpret paralanguage provides insight into how meaning is co constructed, negotiated, and sometimes misunderstood.
Research Questions:
How do individuals from high-context and low-context cultures interpret and make sense of paralanguage cues during cross-cultural communication?
How do cultural backgrounds influence understanding emotions and attitudes conveyed through paralanguage (tone, pauses, volume, etc.)?
Literature Review
Paralanguage cues like tone, pitch, volume, and pauses are important roles in how people communicate emotion and interpret others attitudes. Research shows that these cues have a big influence in how people understand relational messages like dominance, composure, and trust, demonstrating that meaning is usually shown beyond the literal words spoken (Burgoon et al., 2021). But the interpretation of paralanguage is actually not universal. Cultural background shapes how people decode vocal expressions, with some cultures showing indirect or subtle nonverbal cues while some people rely on more explicit communication styles (Pang et al., 2024). Earlier cross-cultural research also shows this idea, showing that cultural norms influence how people perceive nonverbal behavior, including vocal tone and rhythm (LaFrance & Mayo, 1978). All these show that paralanguage is culturally tied instead of just signals.
This shows and aligns with the interpretive paradigm by Merrigan and Huston (2020), which shows that meaning is co constructed through social interaction and affected by people's experiences. From our research perspective, the way young adults in San Diego interpret emotional cues during cross-cultural interactions depends on the cultural frameworks they bring to communication. These frameworks affect whether a raised voice is seen as expressive or aggressive, whether a pause shows disrespect or thoughtfulness, and if tone shows friendliness, sarcasm, or annoyance. Because communication in diverse communities usually makes us navigate these different perspectives. Looking at how cultural backgrounds influence paralanguage interpretation helps show how people make meanings of things, avoid misunderstandings, and negotiate emotional understanding across cultures.
Methodology
Our research plan utilizes one-on-one interviews with residents of San Diego between the ages of 18-35, who regularly engage in communication with people from cultures different from their own. “One reason that interview studies are so prevalent is that they can be used to address practical problems in a specific context.” (Merrigan & Huston, 2009-2020, p. 227) This method of information gathering was chosen due to the nature of our research questions and the desire for a more direct understanding about the individual rather than broad responses from a focus group setting. This research design aims to, “...‘understand people’s experiences, knowledge, and worldviews’ and ‘elicit the language forms used by culture members’ (Lindlof & Taylor, 2018, p. 222)” (Merrigan & Huston, 2009-2020, p. 226).
Utilizing convenience sampling through a “boots on the ground/grass roots” design; we will set up 3 booths, twice a week for one month, in multiple locations around San Diego County and recruit passersby, to partake in a brief intake process. Upon qualification they will be invited on a specific date to be interviewed; as set by the researchers. A local I.D. or Drivers license will be required to prove status of local residence. The target sample size will be n=30, and the gender demographics will be ratioed at 50%.
Inclusion criteria: local resident with verifiable documentation, culturally diverse background, availability.
Exclusion criteria: anyone not living in San Diego.
We will not be utilizing any names or direct data within our research design as this is not a case-study. Rather, all of our interview responses will be maintained as anonymous, and the researchers interpreting the data will never have any direct contact with the participants. The person conducting our interviews is a 45-50 year-old ethnically diverse woman; who has experience with cross-language barriers and encountering interactions where a second or even third language are being utilized. The reason we are having this person conduct the interviews is so that our participants feel more comfortable when sharing their own experience with understanding emotions & attitudes conveyed through paralanguage.
Researcher Positionality
One of the researchers' only spoken & comprehended language is English, and their entire life has revolved around an American lifestyle. The initial intrigue came from how people communicate across cultures and specifically through nonverbal comprehension of concepts like paralanguage. Although a person may not speak a language or come from a specific culture, it has always been curious how we are still able to comprehend & understand cues through language & cultural barriers.
Another of the researchers comes from a communication background where people tend to speak directly (low-context), habit tends to influence how they notice tone or pauses in a conversation. Realizing that other cultures may read these cues differently helps us to stay aware that our interpretations are not universal. This perspective pushed them to listen more carefully to how participants explain their own experiences with paralanguage instead of assuming participant meanings match their own.
Our third researcher was born in Ethiopia and raised in Kansas, which exposed him early on to multiple cultural identities and communication styles. Growing up in a predominantly low-context, Midwestern environment shaped his experience for clear, direct communication, especially within his family and community. These experiences influence how he interprets tone, pauses, and vocal intensity, usually viewing them through a straightforward and explicit communication lens. After moving to San Diego and working in diverse environments, he became more aware that vocal cues can carry different meanings across cultures.
High-context, Low-context Cultural Effects of Paralanguage: On Generalizability
Quantitative Proposal
Co-authors: Abraham Romm, Yvonne Velazquez
Introduction
Communication styles vary greatly across cultures, and one area that highlights these differences is paralanguage, the nonverbal aspects of speech such as pitch, tone, volume, and speech rate. These vocal cues often convey emotions or attitudes that words alone cannot fully express, yet how people interpret them depends heavily on cultural background. Research shows that individuals from high-context cultures, which rely on shared understanding and indirect communication, are more sensitive to subtle vocal cues, whereas those from low-context cultures tend to focus more on explicit verbal messages (Leotescu, 2023). Supporting this, Zhang and Pell (2022) found that Canadian and Chinese participants were better at recognizing emotions when listening to their native language, demonstrating that cultural norms shape how people perceive paralanguage. Understanding these differences is important not only for studying human interaction but also for improving communication in multicultural workplaces and everyday social settings.
Research Question
How does cultural background (high-context vs. low-context) affect the degree to which people generalize when interpreting paralanguage?
Hypothesis
Participants from high-context cultures will score higher on a scale measuring generalization in interpreting paralanguage than participants from low-context cultures.
Literature Review
Guyer and colleagues (2021) looked at how paralinguistic cues like tone, pitch, volume, and speech rate affect listeners’ judgment of a speaker’s confidence and credibility. They were able to find out that even subtle vocal variations influence how listeners form evaluations, demonstrating that voice related nonverbal features can really shape social impressions. This study shows the importance of paralanguage as a channel for persuasion and evaluation, showing that people usually make broad generalizations based on vocal delivery instead of just the actual message and what is being said. It shows direct support for examining how cultural differences might amplify these paralinguistic judgments, especially when listeners' expectations about voice tone and emotional expressiveness differ cross-culturally.
Pang and colleagues (2024) showed how people from different cultural contexts interpret indirect communication through nonverbal cues. Their results showed that individuals from high context cultures (like China) rely more heavily on nonverbal behaviors like facial expressions, tone, and gestures to interpret meaning, while low-context cultures (like the U.S.) depend more on direct verbal cues. The study showed that misinterpretations and expectancy violations usually happen when individuals from differing cultural backgrounds interact, as their assumptions about what counts as “appropriate” nonverbal behavior differ. This aligns closely with the Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Model, showing that when nonverbal norms are violated, it triggers stronger cognitive & emotional reactions depending on cultural frame.
Li (2025) shows a comparative study on nonverbal communication styles between Chinese and American participants, showing differences in eye contact, gestures, and paralinguistic signals. The research showed that participants from China (a high-context culture) interpret nonverbal and vocal cues as central to meaning making, while American participants (a low-context culture) relied on verbal clarity and explicitness. Li’s study showed that cultural background shapes how people interpret tone, volume, and speech rhythm, usually leading to misunderstandings when individuals from different contexts communicate. This directly informs our research question by showing that paralinguistic interpretation is culturally bound, a foundational premise for exploring how expectancy violations in paralanguage could lead to overgeneralization or bias.
Methods
SDSU students, selected through the stratification of cultural/ethnic backgrounds, with a then systematic sampling selection, including a random start (Merrigan, Huston, 2020). Participants volunteered to take part in the study through Handshake app, within which an initial survey requested self-reported responses for country of origin/ethnicity, so as to better stratify the final sample. Furthermore, the advert to participate on Handshake had a pre-screening test.
In order to define the independent variable (cultural background), we utilized the High-Low Context Communication Scale developed by Edward T. Hall when recruiting our participants. To better define the degree to which people generalize when interpreting paralanguage (dependent variable), the Communication Flexibility Scale/Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC), developed by Matthew M. Martin & R.B. Rubin; utilized to determine comfort & adaptability in intercultural encounters. Utilized because it often predicts how accurately participants decode nonverbal cues.
The research design will be survey-based, with multiple self-reporting devices to be administered throughout the process. This is an appropriate method for studying this topic because we are asking participants to share their own experience. To better interpret the information, most study materials will be converted to likert-scale devices so as to be able to better analyze the returned data.
ECL 220
Journal #1
Given our discussion over the past two weeks I feel that not only have I gained a clearer understanding of the concepts of authoritarianism & libertarianism, along with the ideas of ‘leftist’ & ‘rightist’, but also now have a better visual understanding due to the graphic utilized to display the information. The discussion within our individual group was a great supplementary source, as I was fortunate enough to be paired with people that were previously very knowledgeable about the subject matter.
Unfortunately as to my understanding of the concepts of communism, socialism and fascism being improved by the discussion… I still have a long way to go before I grasp the nuances that make these ideologies different. Although I may now have a bit better understanding as to where they each potentially fall on the ‘hierarchical grid’, and in relation to each other, I am still learning to understand the perspectives of each. As such I am very excited to grab on to my bootstraps and enjoy the ride this course is prepared to lead.
Journal #2
Of all the readings we had discussed thus far in this class, September 1st, 1939 by W. H. Auden has resonated most with me. Although most of the subject matter of everything we discuss has some form of resonance with me, this poem in particular inspired me to write specifically because of the many murders that occurred publicly in the last week. I bear no alignment & allegiance to any party involved, and furthermore wield no arms in this war of perspective; the sheer act itself seems to represent a deeper impact to freedom & liberty on this planet; although not nearly the same, a similar concept can be represented in the day Germany invaded Poland.
Untitled 09/11/2025
I have not found peace. I am holding war at bay.
Each chiseled splinter chipped away. Each hammer swung with its bloody bruise. Each stake to the heart, in vain. Each shovel of sand on the corpses of those forgotten to the hourglass of time.
A scar stitched together by scars of its own has only so much time before it erupts. Healing must begin from within. Wherein each individual cell & body intentionally focuses on self-reflection.
The light dwells in the darkness; bringing forth the shadows with which we move.
Recognizing the purity & chaos as a coin, and choosing to flip the script.
Deciding in every moment that which we desire to be the shared reality and manifesting that which we collectively will.
I am none to dowse with daisy.
I am angry. I am curious. I am love. I am found.
In all the havoc of the traffic, this ocean of ‘oh shit’. Elevate one Self. Do not rise above the strife and consider The Self an other & better than. We are all in this together.
However, as the crabs in the bucket we can not begin to grasp the lips of veracity if we are not first capable of moving in an orderly fashion.
Each tug at the sleeve of the individual near you. Each stub of Lady Liberty’s bell. Each shot fired. Each knife to the throat.
Each visceral emotion which can be displayed does not need an outlet.
Some things are meant to be used as fuel to stoke the internal flame. Placed within a container and utilized as a reminder.
A reminder that action need not be violent. A reminder that moving in silence together, as a single entity, we can move the course of history.
The dialogue and civil discourse of this so-called society are an atrocity to behold, much less to partake in.
The Higher I Am the more grounded in reality I Become.
With all the perspectives displayed before us; the over encumbrance of the idea of knowing whittles down the desire to indulge in seeking information.
Therefore only those truly willing to dig deep into the recesses of their own Beingness; to bear the torch in the face of fear, to burn away the mold and break free from the shackles enforced by Self doing.
Only you can stop the oppression within and together we shall see tyranny fall.
Journal #3
The story of Macbeth by William Shakespeare has many themes which interrelate with the themes of this course; the most prevalent being that of tyranny through power. Macbeth is a character who has been misguided into believing, either by fate or the perspectives of his peers (namely Lady Macbeth), that his destiny is set and that there is a specific course of action to ensure said destiny being fulfilled. Overall the story of Macbeth illustrates a clear depiction of that which occurs when ambition blinds & power corrupts an individual.
Although he has been informed of the outcomes of said destiny by the witches, Macbeth takes action into his own hands as to how this destiny will play out. Rather than allow the fates to decide the course of events, Macbeth conceives a plan to ensure he is made king, and furthermore, allows himself to be consumed by the idea. He is no longer acting in a righteous or exemplary manner and rather loses his own sense of direction & self that have led him to this position in the first place. Macbeth is a prime example of what can occur when fate is unquestioned and when ambition is taken to its extremes.
Overall, the ideas & themes expressed in Macbeth by William Shakespeare can still be studied today as their relevance to the current political & cultural climate are ever present…and, we as a collective have still not learned the lessons so delicately laid before us.
Journal #4
There are so many takeaways to be had regarding state oppression of minority communities and the dissenting voices that stood against Nazi Germany & Soviet Russia. State oppression of minority communities, and further oppression of any form, from any angle is diabolic. No matter the means, the reasoning, the intent, the purpose, the perspective that is taken there is no goodly reason for oppression. The outcome is always the same: death, fear, loss. These are the foulest of concepts a human can experience and to wish or force them onto another is a sign of a truly misguided individual or population. The dissenting voices of the people are a necessity beyond any comprehended basic need. The uproar of the masses must be heard in order to ensure no people are targeted due their race, creed, color, religion, sex, gender, age, culture, beliefs, practices, or any other identifying concept that may “marginalize” a group of people. We are humans of the planet earth. As a wise one once said; we may be of different shades of wheat, however our bread is of the same bounty.
Journal #5
After this week’s in-class discussion of the King James Bibles’ “Parable of the Talents”, I have an even further skewed-perspective of Octavia Butler's book of the same title. I was not connecting the deeper concepts of what the Bible’s version may imply and how they applied to Ms. Butler’s interpretation. Now I am in even further conflict about what she herself was implying by this story she told. Of who was given the most Talents? Christian America? Earthseed? And to whom the least? The slaves & downtrodden? Marcos? I have so many questions.
Regardless of to whom was given any Talents & none, what accountability do I have to you? Of this I am speaking of the grand-version of these personal pronouns, I & you. Of what reason, and why must I be burdened with the enlightenment of the cosmos. Whether I was given this life or I took it, I am here. We are here. You do not owe anything to me. Each of us, together, can learn & share as we please; or horde & maintain our perspective for our own pleasure. This idea of required participation is what has led us here in the first place. Participation should be voluntary, as should all things.
Should. Who am I to say what all things “should” be. I guess what I mean; I was born into a system within which I have never fully agreed. I have partaken in many of the ways in which it works; military, taxes, dreams. I have stood against those same systems and learned ways in which to deviate from them. However, they are still there, ever present. Your I.D. My S.S.N. This trust fund. That parking ticket. We are all in this way tied together, bound by forced birth-right to partake in something that we can not fully comprehend, and of more realism… even if we could comprehend them, what are we going to do? Keep talking about it? Keep living in these doldrums of fear? Fear of the unknown. Fear of the screen. Fear of that which we have all deemed necessary for the safety of our freedom. Security.
I truly appreciated this text and hated it, all in the same breath. The cryptic solutions displayed in plain sight, yet still obscured by abstraction. The feeling of unease as the pages turned and the plot hadn’t yet satiated my desires of revolution. The withering candle that was once Resistance, now a puddle of wax to be remolded and shipped with a new sticker. Each generation receiving the same cera alba, repackaged & repurposed to suit the systems needs. Ready to be melted away with time, or… Ready to burn…
Journal #6
What did you think of Alan Moore's V for Vendetta? What were your main takeaways?
I enjoy this story and think Alan Moore did an amazing job of creating an enticing story that incorporates just enough history to make the concept of tyranny & resistance that much more relevant. Overall the depictions displayed in the story are intense & gruesome.
My main takeaways from this story were mostly to do with the individual; and the part we each play within the theater of tyranny. V represents the most anarchist of us, while Evey is those of us that must be pushed to our boiling point. Similarly, Adam Susan is the expression of a figurehead that should never be allowed into such positions of power, whereas Detective Finch is the reason & logic within us all.
What do you think the author/illustrator could have done differently?
I think the writing itself is amazing, although sometimes a bit confusing, simply due to the sometimes chosen vernacular. I do think the specific font that was chosen for the graphic novel sometimes stood in the way of understanding; at times it became a bit too much and I was lost in translation. In terms of the illustrations, I really liked this old 40-50’s comic book style of art, and the effects with lighting that were used kept the pages turning for me. However, similar to the font choice, the overall layout of the art & conversations was sometimes difficult to track and I found myself reading pages multiple times over, in order to comprehend which characters were in the scene and who was doing/saying what.
Journal #9
Of the 3 literature books that we read this semester; Parable of the Talents, V for Vendetta and American War, the latter was my personal favorite. I say that to qualify that I am biased in what I think of Omar El Akkad’s masterpiece. I enjoyed it for many reasons; the pacing, the detail, the storytelling… but what really did it for me was the last few twists at the end. I do not want to give any spoilers here, just know, I was thrown. On some level I guess I knew what happened in the plot was what was coming, I just didn't have the foresight to put it all together, which left me flabbergasted (and I mean that word very specifically & intentionally for all intensive purposes and regardless of any possible ironic usage).
My main takeaways were similar across all 3 works… War begets war; an eye for an eye leaves the world hungry for more carnage.
In my bias I do not see anything that I would have the author do differently as I think American War is an instant classic, deserving of any accolade or praise it receives. I think that this in part stems from the conflicting emotions and possible disagreements (like those that I have with the plot) that readers & commentators may have. The conversation it creates is compelling and forces its audience to think about their own “moral” judgements & actions that they have deemed “necessary” for the betterment of society.
Journal #10
Are you more hopeful for the future after taking this course? If so, what made you hopeful? If not, what makes you still uncertain about the future?
Unfortunately, I try to never be“hopeful” as I believe this implies some portion of non-accountability. Or rather a non-chalance about the steps required to achieve a desired outcome. I have faith that the future will continue its march upon the present and humans will grasp at the threads of extinction forevermore. Whether we as a species continue is irrelevant to me when speaking of things like the future. I can tell you my perceived plan for my next 5 years (maybe 10 if I think real hard) but even then I am not hopeful for it, I do have faith the future will occur, whether I am a part of it or not. If the future isn’t continuing then we have bigger problems to consider than hope.
The uncertainty of potential is a heavy burden to consider. I know that I will continue on in a manner that will be accounted for; good, bad, or ugly. I have not lived an ideal life, but I stand by my decisions and represent them in the ways I move.
Walk
They have all gone.
Long ago.
The faces of those recognized.
The memories of a once-lived-life.
Now.
Of what remains, no thing can be cherished.
Wars march their bloody tune, society erodes into dust.
Walk.
Cities stand, towns aplenty.
Crumbling under the gravity of time & rust.
Dwellings of the uncivilized.
The decaying & infected after-thought of the facade of security.
The negative proof, a burned skyline, withering under the sun’s pressed lips.
Buildings hunched in a field of daisies.
All feeling the same pressure to collapse on the whim of the wind.
Walk.
The world seems to freeze around me.
Within the barriers of my own confined existence, I am desensitized.
I can no longer be bothered to fear the echo on the distant horizon.
I have detached the idea of revolution from action.
I am complacent in my comprehension and remote from reality.
I have become skilled in the art of retreat for self-preservation.
I embrace this choice by others and question why more do not partake.
Walk.
The landmines lay before us, placed in the ideal path so as to create the most chaos.
Some are seen enticing a taste with their painted smile.
Others hidden in quiet slumber waiting to lash out at the faintest of disturbances.
The task becomes navigating the field as if a landmine thyself.
Ready to burst at the seams of resistance.
Prodding at the environment to press any particle toward explosion.
Resting at ease with each embrace of the power within.
Walk.
Artist’s Statement [Walk]
Concept: What inspired your piece? What argument or emotion are you conveying?
I was inspired to write this piece after reading Parable of the Talents & V for Vendetta (and everything that this course offered up to that point as well.) It came to me randomly while working on a homework assignment during the semester. On some level I do feel the way this poem reflects, but also it is an old viewpoint I once carried, or rather I am presently more inspired about the future and its potential; this piece was heavily inspired by the two literative works I mentioned above and as such contain a large portion of the narrative that they deliver within it. “This world is brutal and so must you be so as to survive & prevail.”
I am conveying an emotion of desensitization to the mass exposure to terror & destruction; which I feel is on some level what the two books that inspired it are portraying as well. The world is so bleak even the buildings are starting to sag under the pressure of reality’s grasp. No person, place or thing can escape the tendrils of time, the only option is to move at pace or be trampled in the chaos of existence.
Course Connections: Which texts, ideas, or historical moments from class shaped your project? (Cite at least two course texts or thinkers—e.g., Butler, Eco, El Akkad, Moore, etc.)
As I mentioned above, the major inspiration of this piece is the two first major books we read in the course; Parable of the Talents & V for Vendetta. By the time we finished reading the latter I was truly-fully invested in the concepts & discourse surrounding tyranny & resistance. For a moment this semester my brain became fully enveloped in these ideas and I was able to translate a piece of my perspective through an unfiltered medium of which I feel accustomed. I didn’t write this piece with the idea of a “Creative Presentation” in mind. It emerged from my deepest thoughts & perceptions about the topics discussed. I was immersed.
Creative Process: How did you choose your medium, structure, and aesthetic?
I have been a writer for a long time… of all the mediums, writing poetry was the first that I connected with on a personal level, and utilized it as a means to express myself from a very early age. When it came to writing this poem I wasn’t even thinking. I remember being working on a homework assignment and stopping abruptly to pull out a notepad to write this piece.
That being said over the following two days I structured the lines and formatted the page so as to create more of an aesthetic for its visual delivery. In terms of the literal structure of the stanzas and such, I tried to create more of a cadence with the lines rather than any specific required amount of bars… My goal was to impart some type of marching feel to the order of thoughts and a forward motion that kept on pushing right on to the next idea, leaving the past to erode.
Reflection: What does your work say about tyranny, fear, and resistance today?
Within the final lines of this piece I utilize a more direct metaphor involving “landmines”. In these few bars I am expressing the idea that resistance to tyranny, no matter the timeframe, is vital to self-preservation and the ensuring of personal safety. I am not implying that we should not think of each other and care for one another, but that as we truly begin to look and focus on preserving the self, we can also then see the importance of doing the same for others. This is not self-preservation at the cost of others; this is self-preservation with the thought of others. “If I do not wish to be destroyed in x,y,z way, then I can comprehend that others do not either, which then leads to teaching each other with general-preservation in mind.
Basically, stop blowing shit up… literally walk & smell the roses.
Literatures’ Portrayal of Tyranny Before the Modern Era; Aristotle’s Politics & Shakespeare’s Macbeth:
The Spectrum of Resistance & Silence
Wherever be’est thou’s modest brow upon the beckoning of oppressions poignant grasp, there lay the threshold at which tyranny arises; whereupon you decide the action to be taken, from resistance to silence, either option's role in the theatre of being has its risk & favour. This critical essay will contextualize Shakespeare's depiction of tyranny, resistance & silence displayed in Macbeth through the lens of Aristotle’s Politics to elucidate why pairing theory + theatre reveals both principle & lived effect. Before we begin we must assert our present comprehension within a classical/medieval (pre-modern) perspective of “rightful rule”. A distinction must be made between the hierarchical ideals of kingship by way of righteous monarchy or deviant tyranny. Resistance in the purview of pre-modern philosophy & literature are those actions which restore the common good & law. Furthermore, silence is often a tool of prudence & complicity which must be broken with the courage to speak through veracity. Taking Aristotle’s catalogue of tyrant tactics from Politics as a lens, Macbeth reads like a stage manual of despotism: enacted silence enforced by murderous intent functions as the regime’s chief technology, and only through coordinated, virtuous communication – oaths, counsel, proclamation, etc. – can resistance unmake the tyrant; implying that pre-modern literature legitimizes resistance when it reorders speech, lineage & law, rather than when it voices mass dissent. Both texts portray resistance not as popular revolt but as morally authorized restoration: Macbeth’s overthrow mirrors Aristotle’s preference for lawful correction of deviant rule. Let’s set about further defining tyranny so as to hone a more focused lens out of Aristotle’s Politics.
Aristotle supplies a toolkit for diagnosing tyranny & resistance that Shakespeare dramatizes. The following is a brief summary of Aristotle’s greater works on Politics so as to inspect Shakespeare’s Macbeth through a more defined microscope. I have taken the liberty of extrapolating the term “rightful” to righteous, as a means to juxtapose “deviant” more simply. A righteous monarchy is a government by a single ruler who governs in the interests of the entire community (‘rule for common good’). Whereas deviant tyranny is an aristocratic government that has become corrupt. The ruler abuses power and governs only for their own benefit, often through oppression (‘rule for private gain & advantage’). “All these forms of government have a kind of justice, but, tried by an absolute standard, they are faulty; and, therefore, both parties, whenever their share in the government does not accord with their preconceived ideas, stir up revolution.” (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E./2009, V.1). There is a certain mechanic to tyranny, a tact if you will. Surveillance, the disarmament & isolation of citizens, impoverishing subjects, forbidden assemblies, informant manipulation, eliminating rivals and constant war or threats thereof to keep the people distraught, busy & fearful; these are all means by which the spirited are assassinated and the end is executed. This fear-mongering brews systematic silence which boils down to self-censorship, individual ‘quietness’ and a general agreement to bow the knee. Aristotle goes on to further explain:
“For royal rule is of the nature of an aristocracy, and a tyranny is a compound of oligarchy & democracy in their most extreme forms; it is therefore most injurious to its subjects, being made up of two evil forms of government, and having the perversions & errors of both…That tyranny has all the vices [of both oligarchy & democracy] is evident. As of oligarchy so of tyranny, the end is wealth; (for by wealth only can the tyrant maintain either his guard or his luxury). Both mistrust the people, and therefore deprive them of their arms. Both agree too in injuring the people and driving them out of the city and dispersing them. From democracy tyrants have borrowed the art of making war upon the notables and destroying them secretly or openly, or of exiling them because they are rivals [that] stand in the way of their power; and also because plots against them are contrived by men of this dass, who either want to rule or to escape subjection.” (350 B.C.E./2009, V.10)
Macbeth, the usurper turned tyrant committed regicide as sacrilege, breaking the consecrated order of “rightful kingship”, or the righteous monarchy; turning Scotland into a political battleground, fueled by coercion & fear; deviant was his reign, and just was his downfall. Aristotle supplies a lexicon for tyranny as rule for private gain and for resistance as restoration of lawful order; emphasizing Macbeth’s rise, maintenance of tyranny and the resistance that leads to righteous order.
Macbeth’s rise to power, although instigated by external forces, was engulfed in the ambition of a man’s determination to gain power through regicidal sacrilege & oppressive reign which so endorses Aristotle’s dissection of tyranny piece-by-piece, leaving little by way of necessary explanation, lest we proceed. Upon the murdering of King Duncan (Act 2, Scene 2), Macbeth deviantly seizes power and must now face the political fallout & intrigue that becomes the investigation of his demise. Surmising that his private interest was paramount to the common law, custom & convention of “rightful rule”, Macbeth acts upon the prophecy of personal gain. Macduff to Macbeth & Lennox upon learning of the murder of King Duncan, “Confusion now hath made his masterpiece. Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope The Lord’s anointed temple and stole thence The life o’ th’ building.” (Act 2, Scene 3) Here we find Macduff grappling with the idea that this apparently intentional beheading of the royal bloodline was cause for suspicion. However ill-equipped he may have been to prove it at that moment, Macduff immediately had his doubts of Macbeth and his soon to be rise-to-power through sacrilegious regicide. Through the pre-modern understanding of “rightful rule”, sacrilege is morally wrong and a form of constitutional breach that merits exactly the type of danger Aristotle fears when one rules without law.
Per Aristotle’s playbook, Macbeth utilizes every tactic depicted for maintaining tyranny; fear, secrecy & purges being a few of the namesakes. By eliminating his “rivals” (Banquo and his sons) or rather those that the prophecy constructed to be his rivals, Macbeth began the arduous task of being a mechanic of tyranny. With his potential successors, by way of prophecy, removed from the picture… now about the business of the legitimate heir to the throne and his cohorts; Malcolm, Macduff & Lennox. How to maintain that which is deviantly yours? As for restraint of Macduff, Macbeth keeps informers & surveillance under lock & key. “There’s not a one of them but in his house I keep a servant fee’d.” (Act 3, Scene 4) Exacting a timely slaughter of Macduff’s family by the end of Act 4, Scene 2 in which Lady Macduff and her family are left helpless by her husbands fleeing to England. Furthering the reign of terror pouring from Macbeth’s thunderous gaze, making citizens fearful & politically inert. After seizing the crown, Macbeth rules as Aristotle’s tyrant: securing power through eliminating rivals, wrangling informers, surveillance & terror; not law & order as seen by “rightful rule”. Resistance to the deviant tyrant is the only option for righteous restoration.
Resistance is the escalation of the private judgement of oppression to the public truth-telling of necessary liberation through the action of constitutional force (Aristotle’s lawful correction of rule). Malcolm to Macduff upon hearing of the slaughter committed by Macbeth against the latter, “Be comforted. Let’s make us med’cines of our great revenge to cure this deadly grief.” (Act 4, Scene 3) This is the apex of which resistance descends upon Macbeth’s deviant tyranny. Although MacDuff fleeing for England can be perceived as the most atrocious abandonment, the tragedy in-and-of itself underscores resistance’s price when weighing familial cost vs. civic duty. The synopsis for Act 5, Scene 2 of Macbeth reads, “A Scottish force, in rebellion against Macbeth, marches toward Birnam Wood to join Malcolm and his English army.” Here we find all the tactics of a tyrant collapsing as fear can no longer sustain the organizing of silence, while resistance has found its footing. The camouflage of the Birnam Wood itself, a symbol of orderly, coordinated resistance. Again, this is a perspective of resistance that is viewed through a pre-modern understanding of “rightful rule”; with Aristotle’s view that restoring the proper regime is a form of common good, not a device of novelty. Resistance through a pre-modern comprehension is justified when oriented to the common good and proper regime form (legitimate succession, law). Shakespeare presents resistance as morally disciplined & oriented towards the public good, aligning with Aristotle’s cure for deviant tyranny: righteous rule of law & virtue.
Now, I haven’t even begun to incorporate silence into this conversation and the effects it plays within the theatre of tyranny & oppression; simply because I believe it deserves a moment all its own. Silence is a continuum and is ethically ambivalent – it is sometimes prudent, complicit or courageous – each has its mechanisms of engagement. Banquo’s suspicion of foul play did not lead him to denounce Macbeth as the rightful king, rather he chose to remain silent as a means to stay close, observe & gather information about Macbeth… This prudent silence is a form of self-preservation, although it didn’t quite play out that way for Banquo in the end. “Thou hast it now—king, Cawdor, Glamis, all as the Weïrd Women promised, and I fear thou played’st most foully for’t. Yet it was said it should not stand in thy posterity, but that myself should be the root and father of many kings. If there come truth from them (As upon thee, Macbeth, their speeches shine) Why, by the verities on thee made good, may they not be my oracles as well, and set me up in hope? But hush, no more.” (Act 3, Scene 1) Banquo has his suspicions, but is willing to remain silent even if only for the possibility of sowing the seeds of his own prophecy. Complicit silence on the other hand is a means by which tyranny is enforced & perpetuated. One of the ways we discussed briefly above was the conversion of “neighbors into surveillance,” which in-turn breeds hushed neighborhoods, and silent populations. Even prior to the decree of the rightful King Malcolm to “cure this deadly grief,” Lennox and another lord were spinning tales of dissent in similar ways through private judgment & sarcastic commentary of “Macbeth’s ‘official’ version of the many recent violent deaths.” (Act 3, Scene 6) This simple indication of ending the silence in Macbeth becomes a valid marker for a turning point of resistance. If the climax of tyranny is silence, then the lesson of Aristotle’s proverbial Politics would be the return of counsel (shared deliberation), which dissolves tyrannical isolation and enables action through oppression's destabilization.
On the complication of prudent silence (self-preservation) a simple resolution can be found; under terror, prudence need not correlate collusion. As for the decision-making of Macduff to leave his family & house to the demise of Macbeth; with hindsight, his action (albeit at a personal loss) was ordered to the common good. An-eye-for-an-eye leaves the world blind. Violence in the form of tyranny paints a vividly different portrait than that same violence which is necessary for the ethical restoration of order. Even with such barriers, both texts insist on lawful order as the measure of legitimate resistance.
With Aristotle’s Politics as a lens, Macbeth depicts tyranny fostered by fear & enforced silence that is only undone by lawful, coordinated speech. In pre-modern texts, resistance is restoration, not revolt. It is important for us to review & remember the pre-modern treatments of tyranny & resistance as without doing so history is bound… Must I repeat myself. Shakespeare stages Aristotle’s theories of tyranny and the constitutional, righteous action required to ensure that oppression does not continue to breed. It cannot be expected that every person stands outright and ‘fights’ or even ‘dies’ for these ideals… even more so… why is that the solution? Know that it is enough to speak out against oppression, for silence is the place in which it festers.
Reclaiming Resistance for Restoration:
Comparing Tyrannical Oppression & Contrasting Revolution in Literative Representations
"He who fights with monsters should look to it that he himself does not become a monster.
And if you gaze long into an abyss, the abyss also gazes into you,"
-Friedrich Nietzsche
Fear of an unknown other and a desire for safety without the personal requirement to maintain it are an alluring fatale. Restriction of personal freedoms for the masquerade of mass order creates cross-street avenues for tyranny to solicit its devious actions and the back alleys from which revolution seduces any afflicted passerby. Both are utilized as a tool & guise to keep the people entertained; malignant distractions for the common individual and games of death for those in positions of control. Not one of us can look away from a train wreck, even if solely to steer clear of the wreckage… Meanwhile, there’s no escaping when onboard. The only safe action becomes knowing how to protect the Self from destruction within the chaos; possibly even becoming said tyranny whilst in the pursuit of indemnity.
Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Talents is a methodological depiction of a society wherein ideology & faith are the framework within which tyranny & revolution are employed. Andrew Jarret’s Christian America, a fundamentalist theocracy, incites tactics of separation, propaganda and in some sense slavery (through facilities like Camp Christian) to perpetuate tyranny. Meanwhile, organizations & communities like Laren Olamina and her Earthseed are in direct opposition to this force by way of beliefs like “God is Change.” Through the creation of an alternative ideology Lauren is able to promote a future outside of such fanatical oppression, a future that embraces human adaptability through adversity. On the other hand, the graphic novel V for Vendetta by Alan Moore, illustrated by David Lloyd, is a modern masterclass in theatrical artistry. Set within a dystopian England; dominated by Norsefire, led by Adam Susan, a fascist regime with a staunch dictatorship wielded as a blade to the throat. A government which weaponizes audio & visual surveillance of its people, controls media & information dissemination, along with an intense investigation & military force, the “parts” of this oppression are all-encompassing & overtly overpowering. The anti-hero of the piece, a fundamentalist anarchist, is a believer in change through action. Taking the concept of revolution into his own hands, codename ‘V’ weaves a plot which single-handedly destroys the machine that is driving the government's artifice system, fueling violent revolution. Themes of ideology & fear as tools of oppression are ever present throughout both Parable of the Talents and V for Vendetta; specifically through Jarret’s theocracy & Susan’s fascism. Different forms of revolution evolve from each depiction of tyranny. Through their faith in Earthseed, Lauren Olamina, along with her peers are able to create a form based in ideology and dedication to the Self within an immediate community. Whereas ‘V’ utilizes theatrical, violent & often deadly performance art, in the form of terror, to arouse the masses into action against a corrupt state of affairs. This paper will compare & contrast pacified peace vs. artistic anarchy; varying paths of revolution that oppose tyranny and lead to semblances of freedom & liberty that are all in-fact cyclical trails of infinite repetition.
Through the manipulation of ideology, Andrew Jarret weaponizes religion into a twisted form of oppression rooted in theocratic fanaticism. At the onset of mass panic, moral decay & sin became targeted propaganda against outsiders and those that believe in alternative lifestyles. Similarly, Adam Susan rules with an iron-fist, or rather, iron-body if you will. Utilizing compartmentalization all-the-way-down, fear of repercussions from the state creates a culture of silence & fake news that is endorsed by the citizens which are so easily transfixed. Both "Christian America” & “Norsefire” are propped up on the promise of safety in exchange for the enforcement of conformity. The leaders & their lackeys displaying picturesque false versions of the true-bleak reality that is in the wake of their force. As the respective societies collapsed within each narrative, these corrupt leaders & organizations embody tyranny as the masses that they rule so easily mistake control as protection & safety. Surveillance, censorship, violence or threats thereof, propaganda… investigation, militant action… the list can keep going, these all become tools & mechanisms for maintaining order through suppressing dissent & enforcing power structures. Through a fear of uncertainty, citizens become complicit in oppression when they subscribe to leaders & organizations that promise stability & order at the toll of civil rights & liberties. However complicit to tyranny many may become, there are always those that will revolt, but how?
Olamina develops Earthseed, and her community at Acorn, as a means to empower the individual through any form of tyranny & oppression; whether it be violent & physically present or destructive & internal, the goal becomes to learn how to ride the waves of change on a chariot that may at times disappear and at others be trampling. Faith in Earthseed sows the idea of revolution into the fabric of the community at Acorn. Although some are afraid, and others downright disassociated, each finds their place within the possibilities of Earthseed. The constructive nature and future-forward thinking of Earthseed itself ensures its solidified position on the battlefield of revolution; continually building from that which has been destroyed and always on the search for new horizons, this revolution resembles a similar force to be reckoned with. Alternatively, codename V, collocates art, spectacle & violence to shock the public into action. Simultaneously becoming the chariot and caring little by way of self-preservation. This revolution is itself an idea; an unstoppable force within the minds of the masses, and a symbol of that which is so desired. ‘V’ becomes the corrosive shadow which erodes the system one spectacle at a time. With each act of violence & destruction against the state, the grip it maintains slowly loosens, ultimately creating a platform for the people to rise & challenge such tyrannical oppression. Each protagonist embodies a form of revolution that reflects the power structure within which they were created. Olamina & Earthseed are a constructive, faith-based community determined to build a future for themselves within a landscape of a theocratic tyrant. Whereas V’s main mission is the destruction of the system which destroyed him and so many others. Although they have different approaches to their revolution, the concept that each mirrors the tyranny that oppresses them is a sliver of the vision that this is all a cyclical act. There is no escape, only evolution.
Recognizing the cyclical nature of tyranny & revolution is important when interpreting the diverse traces of freedom & liberty. As seen in these masterfully built narratives. There are different forms of revolution which can arise during conflicts of oppression; each of which here reflects the tyranny being resisted while installing counterposed means, pacified creation & artistic destruction. Furthermore, each tyrannical governmental organization depicted exploits ideology & fear to manipulate & control the people it governs; all the while wearing disguises of protection & security. Freedom & liberty come at a price that is difficult to exchange. There is no bank or social institution which can ensure these concepts are paid when due. These are beliefs that each of us holds within, at our own capacity and with varying forms of representation or lack thereof. Fear of the unknown becomes the tool of coercion. Only through embracing this “unknown” can we begin to release the control that fear has over our actions. Octavia Butler & Alan Moore have created exemplary models of literature that remind their audiences of the necessity for revolution against tyranny. If we are to one day step free from these chains that so wickedly bind us, we must first recognize the chains as illusory as the idea of fear itself.
RWS 305W
Introduce The Self
My name is Andrew (a.k.a. Monk.i.e.) I am currently double majoring in Communication and English, along with finishing up my last two prerequisites to pick up Psychology as my third major starting next semester. I am excited by each major for different reasons, on the simplest of levels I can describe this excitement as this: Psychology is for The Self, Communication is for others, and English is for the masses. In essence, I am excited to continue discovering more about The Self…for me, I am excited to continue learning how to recognize others through their own syntax…for them, and I am excited to share what I learn with anyone willing to ask…for any/everyone. (Although I only know one language so the translation may take some time:)
I have lived enough passed lives in this one body/lifetime to personally recognize the ever-evolving nature of life. What do I mean by that…and where do I start? Two years ago I was arrested for giving mushrooms to an undercover cop. To fully clarify, not selling, giving. Needless to say the court had no grounds and after serving my 3-days while the knuckleheads did their paperwork, I was released with minimal repercussions. At the time I was living on the street, out of a tent mostly and enjoying the sabbatical I had established for myself. Most of my days were invested enjoying the sun at a local beach and sharing my writings with any passerby. I maintained a small booth with bits-and-bobs to spread inspiration to any seeking it. This was the second stint of time I did living on the street, and upon being arrested for the first time in my life, I took it as a sign to go back to school and put a distance between myself and the corruption that lay active within our system. I re-enrolled at San Diego City College, and the rest is mostly history… I currently have 3 Associates Degrees, and multiple certificates that I completed in the last year and a half (all of which I started working on originally in 2019). My goals after completing the 3 bachelors programs, is to move onto a Master’s in Linguistics and a Doctoral Degree in Etymology. Keep going and be the effort that brings fruition to your plans. You are capable and incapable of all that you perceive.
Finding Your Voice
Have we evolved enough to instantly access any and every emotion within a moment's notice? Whether sometimes lusted for, or others undesired, are we capable of receiving all that we want whenever we feel? Do we have the wherewithal to maintain The Self within standards of being that are acceptable for evolution?
Be embraced by the feat of the unknown, smell the rising sun. Check The Self and the insecurities that reside within and leave others to the devices of observation. There is little need for speaking when comprehension is involved. These words are simply markers for personal understanding, as every interpretation is different, no syntax can describe.
Share your perspective of the Infinalaxy and observe the variation expressed. Feel with all your might. As the meek shall inherit all, be the courage humanity so craves. Stay You.
I wrote the previous on August 18th, 2025; 10 days before beginning this assignment. It felt like the best place to start to give a little bit of perspective on where my head's at while working on this subject:)
I think the difference discussed between these two worlds of language studies is that one is of an individual's shift in personal culture compared to their cultural upbringing; while the other is of a cultural shift within a society. What struck me more than any difference between the readings was more so the similarities. As I started dissecting each reading a bit more and pulling quotations from their original context, the lines began to further blur. What was once a quote from a person talking about their “code-switching” if you will, became interchangeable with someone talking about AI. “My concern was to use ‘appropriate’ language…But I felt separate from the language-as if it did not and could not belong to me. I couldn’t think and feel genuinely in that language, couldn’t make it express what I thought and felt...” (Mellix Pg. 264) Although this is completely out of its original context, I feel like it does a great job of also explaining what someone just starting to use AI feels like, or maybe even someone who just doesn't want to use AI in general.
Alternatively, “You’re not talking to [someone] that values truth. You’re talking to [someone] that only values what sounds plausible.” (Jackson, Feb 2025) Again, this is completely out of context, fully intentionally and I changed the word “something” to “someone” to prove my point. If this was said to Barbara Mellix about her family members it would have fit the context. Although it is a harsh reality, with the understanding that Ms. Mellix wanted to become a professor, and standards of language had been established for specific settings; her family did not value her truth of wanting to become an educator (even if that was expressed through “code-switching”), and only that which was plausible was deemed fit language for a young black girl.
Since as early as 1726 the idea of, “common sense is not so common” was publicly expressed by Nicholas Amherst, an English poet and political writer. The attitude can still be felt today. I don’t think AI has created any new situation, I think it is a different perspective of the same situation humans have always been in. Rather than embrace our flaws as our own, we tend to project them onto some outside entity. “That’s why AI is unbeatable at pattern recognition but fails at common sense.” (Jackson, Feb 2025) The students who “rely too much on the internet, social media and now AI…” did not invent these things. Nor do they have much in the way of a say for how they are to be further developed. How am I to reflect poorly on those for which they were given? I think language, self-expression and critical thinking have evolved and will continue to. As Barbara Mellix said, “...always be venturing into new territory, feeling one’s way at first, then getting one’s balance, negotiating, accommodating, discovering one’s self in ways that previously defined ‘others’.” With personal experience I can tell you that no matter where you find The Self within the hierarchy of the moment, you will always be participating in the “highbrow form of violence, this slamming against perplexity.” (Mellix, Pg. 266)
I had little in way of argument for most of Ms. Mellix’s perspective except for the experience that speaking in a “customary way was inferior [to standard English]...We felt foolish, embarrassed, somehow diminished because we were ashamed to be our real selves.” (Mellix, Pg. 260) This feels more culturally driven than anything else… As I would ask her, what is our “real self” if we are not “discovering one’s self in ways that previously defined ‘others’?” (Mellix, Pg. 266) Expanding your vocabulary allows you to express The Self differently, this does not mean that you are different, simply more defined. On the other hand I have a lot to say about Juliana Jackson’s work as it seems to just take the societal perspective of AI and magnify it, rather than using a microscope to dissect it. In the simplest of terms, how can something, “mimic human thinking and problem solving abilities… and be inspired by the [structure of the human brain].” (Jackson, Feb 2025) Yet we expect AI to “value truth”. For those old enough Jack Nicholson said it best, “you can’t handle the truth.” And I mean this in the most sincere way possible, we don’t want it. We collectively want to be spoon fed sugar-coated daisies. This is not new, this is reality. If every single one of us knew the truths we desired, every single one of us would have a broken heart; that would be more dastardly than any tyrant in global control. Not knowing some truths leaves us open to dream, and with that comes ambition through which we can achieve.
I think literacy and language mastery are a tool, and as such can be utilized as a weapon within a certain grasp. The task is upon the individual to decide whether to create or destroy. As with all things in life, mindset & perspective have the potential to make or break one’s personal & professional outlook. Choose wisely.
Analysis of Professional & Academic Writing: The Lens Is Communication
There are many forms & manifestations of writing in lexical paradigms through human existence. Professional & Academic Writing is one such model that has evolved from this rich history. There are multiple hotbeds of the timeline of civilization within which Writing has naturally excreted; including Ancient China & Mesoamerica. One of the earliest known, common understandings of writings’ initial inception, is that of legend. The Egyptian God, Thoth, is recognized as the deity that gave mankind this new technological advancement, Writing; around the year 3200 BCE, in the form of hieroglyphs. Although some forms of written language can be traced to Mesopotamia around 3400 BCE within the Sumerian Cuneiform, as well. However, written language as we commonly recognize it today did not appear until nearly 1900 BCE when the Proto-Sinaitic written language emerged from the mines of the Sinai Peninsula. Wherein the local Canaanite & Semitic workers adapted a form of writing from the thousands of available Egyptian hieroglyphs–down to a simple 22–that represented sounds in their native tongue; this was the first common ‘alphabet’. From this moment, Communication & Writing were revolutionized. Within a few hundred years of this revelation cultures & civilizations all around the Mediterranean and neighboring lands had adopted & adapted their own versions of semitic & phonetic written language. All-of-which, in some way or another, has led to here & now and this paper about professional & academic writing through the lens of Communication Studies. Holy Metatron’s’ Ampersand.
Utilizing a framework constructed in tandem with the Teresa Thonney study; Teaching The Conventions of Academic Discourse and Lumen Learnings’ College Writing Handbook: Exploring Academic Disciplines we will investigate how scholars within the study of Communication formulate arguments and inform their audience accordingly, utilizing Professional & Academic Writing. Our sample of articles from the discipline of Communication include; Why Communication is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication by Sherwyn P. Morreale, et. al. published in the Journal of the Association for Communication Administration in January 2000. Similarly, the Western Journal of Communication published, Communicating In and Through “Murderball”: Masculinity and Disability in Wheelchair Rugby in 2008 by Kurt Lindemann & James Cherney. These two articles are a premier example of professional/academic writing in relation to our current view point; as they include a specific perspective from the discipline of Communication, as well as a broader resemblance to other industries professional/academic papers through the construction of their delivery. Although these papers exemplify the general consensus of organization & context, and we could dissect the inner workings of each major point Teresa Thonney has made, we won’t. We will be exploring how these authors establish credibility as seen in the writing and use of language, syntax, and other features of professional/academic writing by focusing on the sentence-level writing to identify and comment on the conventions authors use to establish their ethos or credibility with their audience. We will reflect on this work done particularly in Communication through this kind of discipline-specific scholarship & discourse in the samples given. “New knowledge about the world is typically produced when a practitioner builds on a previous body of work in the discipline, most often by advancing it only slightly but significantly. We use academic and professional disciplines to conduct persistent, often unresolved conversations with one another.” (Lumen Learning, Pg. 8) The analysis conducted herein will continue to establish further comprehension of concepts & theories with Communication & Writing that have been present for centuries.
The study of Communication can be traced through millenia. One of the earliest massively published works on the matter, Rhetoric the treatise of Aristotle was written around the 4th century BCE and is still studied to this day in regards to the art of persuasion and similarly, connecting with ones’ audience. “Each reader, regardless of academic background, needs a solid understanding of how rhetoric works. Each reader has been trained to use a specific disciplinary lens that causes certain passages to rise to prominence and certain insights to emerge. But the real power of disciplines comes when these readers and their readings interact with each other.” (Lumen Learning, Pg. 13-14) There are three major parts to this concept of rhetoric: Logos, Pathos & Ethos; the latter of which we will focus on now. Credibility & ethical appeal are crucial components when communicating our ideas & thoughts if we are to resonate with, and move our audience to action & emotion. In line with these teachings, Aristotle defined 3 components to empowering ethos within communication; phronesis, arete & eunoia. Each of these aforementioned concepts entwine to establish a rhetor’s credibility & ethical appeal.
There are many avenues available to pursue this endeavor of connection & understanding with an audience; concerning professional & academic writing though, as Karen Bennet says… “[there is] remarkable consensus [in regards to] general principles, methods of textual construction, and the kinds of grammatical and lexical features to be used.” (qtd. In Thonney, Pg. 348) Communication is no different when it comes to this idea. Both of our samples include reference to similar lexicons. Theory, culture & application are all discussed through lenses of disability & sports and the study of Communication itself; each formatting & constructing positions of credibility within their respective audiences. Furthermore, the samples chosen respond to and elaborate the upon a conversation that previously lay before them; as Teresa Thonney says, ““By referring to what others have said about a topic, writers accomplish two things: they show that they are addressing an issue that matters, and they establish that there is more to be said about it.” (Thonney, Pg. 349) Morreale, Osborn & Pearson implement the use of gathering multiple works and synthesizing the meanings into a cohesive reasoning of the importance of the study of Communication. Teresa Thonney goes on to further explain that “academic writers state the value of their work and announce the plan for their papers.” (Thonney, Pg. 350) Similarly Lindemann & Cherney incorporate discussions about previous studies involving disability & communication separately and the importance that their piece brings to uniting these concepts together while inspecting them cohesively. Altogether these two sample pieces utilized many of the concepts expressed by Teresa Thonney and Lumen Learning to establish ethos through credibility & ethical appeal within their respective audiences.
Although some may disagree that there is no “one defined way” in which to write & communicate, there are definitely frameworks & tools available to construct well-articulated professional & academic writing pieces. “Regardless of the discipline you choose to pursue, you will be arriving as an apprentice in the middle of an ongoing conversation. Disciplines have complicated histories you can’t be expected to master overnight. But learning to recognize the long-standing binary oppositions in individual disciplines can help you make sense of the specific issues, themes, topics, and controversies you will encounter as a student and as a professional.” (Lumen Learning, Pg. 10) Ultimately professional & academic writing has a formulaic approach, beginning to comprehend the ground work that has been established in this one discipline alone will further empower any scholar in the pursuit of education. As was discussed, every discipline of study has a lens through which writing is involved, the sharing of information & knowledge is primarily shared in this way and as such it is vital to the progression of experience. Continue investigating the things that inspire & intrigue you, as they will lead to all your passion. Remember the path of least resistance may not be the simplest, however it is the most rewarding.
Sample Letter Analysis
Through multiple forms of appeal, rhetorical strategies and stylistic writing the authors of these 6 sample letters attempted and often succeeded at persuading their audience as to why to join the critical discourse community being promoted in each instance. The turnover rate for this success is purely subjective and a fictional percentage, that I choose to believe is true, simply based on a broadly objective analysis of each sample letter. The writers sampled here deliver an exposé of strengths & weaknesses to examine. Although these are ‘students’, the delivery & expertise with which they command their respective knowledge base is a respectable feat. More specifically, these are quite technically savvy fields being discussed: Computer Science, Civil & Computer Engineering, Nursing, Interior Architecture, and even the lowly Kinesiology; meanwhile, the authors were able to disseminate information to potential Major candidates in a way that was reasonably articulated and simply understandable. Furthermore, the strengths of these Letters of Recommendation far outweigh any weaknesses they may exhibit.
On a broad spectrum and to begin a bit in the land of the abstract… The first strength I recognized quickly became a double-edged sword of the author's weakness, as the use of industry specific ‘jargon’ was heavily present in most of these papers. Although it was refreshing at first, the excessive use of ‘jargon’ throughout most of these papers became encumbering whilst reading through them. It is understood that in order to share a brief but informative paper, one must inherit the language of the field within which is being represented; however, being able to express similar concepts in ‘plain English’ exhibits another level of comprehension that was felt to be lacking within these works.
The most inherent strength that I noticed was the structure & delivery of each Letter. Each paper is meticulously planned out with an order-of-operation that plays hand-in-hand with the main objective of writing these Letters of Recommendation in the first place; to continue the critical discourse (ideas, language, maintaining & extending the group's knowledge and of initiating new members into the group) required of any “large bodies of knowledge” (Foucault) and the community within which that knowledge resides. I am further impressed with the overall attention to detail, and the depth of information provided in such a few short pages of research. Each author was able to draw the reader in and create the internal dialogue; “is this the Major for me?”
I also appreciated the fine line of formality that could be felt throughout most of these works. From speaking in a tone of authority whilst listing off classes & curriculum that may be encountered, to whole-heartedly spotlighting faculty and their research with simple & elegant career profiles, each author wrote to the reader with a sincere hope & tone of inspiring them to join in their critical discourse community!
I believe each of these papers had their own strengths and weaknesses; from the logical appeal of how the degrees could help an individual obtain certain goals, to the emotional appeal of “why this is the industry for you”--each author targeted specific audiences with meticulous attention and gave great credence to the departments and institutions that make this education possible.
Join Your Critical Discourse Community: Communication, at San Diego State University
What are you going to do with that degree? You’re going to end up waiting tables. If it’s not STEM, it’s a waste of money & time. All common concerns… all boring. Before going further with any of that… Congratulations on the acceptance to continue your higher education! Let this be a Major milestone on your journey to discovering The Self and that which is personally desired. If your only concern is a job or career after graduation, then you may have been misguided somewhere along the way. Through no fault of your own, or any one specific person's doing (barring John D. Rockefeller), our collective educational goals in westernized civilization have been led astray. If you are seeking your passions then no level of standardization will obstruct the path. If you are looking for the means by which to share your passions with the world, whatever those might be, the art of Communication will usher the way. As an ever-evolving and seemingly everlasting human tradition the art of Communication has been essential for our species survival & ultimate mastery of the mortal plane; however immaculate or disturbing that may be. Although there may be disagreement between certain outcomes, the means have created endless possibilities for human existence and the potential for evolution is ever-present simply due this one tradition. Embarking we’ll discover a rudimentary understanding of the possible Communication Major curriculum to be encountered, profiles of faculty/staff & their research conducted, and an available extracurricular activity & student organization here at San Diego State University (SDSU).
As one-of-seven schools within the College of Professional Studies and Fine Arts (PSFA) at SDSU, the School of Communication was originally founded in 1927 as a public speaking department. The School of Communication About Us section goes on to further explain, “Most recently, in 2007 the School of Communication split from what became the School of Journalism and Media Studies (JMS).” (About The School, 2025) Similar small changes over time have created varying fields of study within which scholars can pursue specific courses of education at PSFA; let’s bring the current focus back to the School of Communication.
The first Major requirement that Communication scholars will encounter within the School of Communication at SDSU is Conceptualizing Communication (COMM 300) in which we are introduced to a range of theoretical frameworks that have shaped the study of modern Communication. Social Judgement Theory developed by Muzafer Sherif is one such framework that Communication scholars utilize. This concept explains how we judge persuasive messages based on our current position. Our ‘anchor’ being that which our ego primarily agrees with, falls within our Latitude of Acceptance; or that which we already believe or most closely resemble. Our Latitude of Non-Commitment, or relevance to us, determines if we are impartial or not. Whereas our Latitude of Rejection can create a Contrast effect, wherein if a message falls here, we see it as further from our ‘anchor’ (Littlejohn, 2023). All of which will empower any scholar to understand how we are persuaded. Furthermore, COMM 300 is a prerequisite for the next course to be introduced… Segway!
As we begin further investigating Communication we will discover Foundations of Critical and Cultural Study (COMM 441) wherein Communication scholars learn how to conduct relevant & investigative criticism of an artifact or text for the purpose of cultural analysis. This class focuses within the medium of writing and how to rhetorically analyze an artifact or text for the purpose of understanding the conditions of its creation and the goals of its existence; both socially & culturally. The main project in a course like this is a 5-6 page written analysis (Goehring, 2015). The scholar will investigate an artifact or text through a critical lens to better understand the social & cultural context of its creation and more so to respond to the question; why was this artifact or text created?
A prime example of this type of Critical & Cultural Study is demonstrated by Dr. Damariyé Smith an Assistant Professor of Contemporary Black/African American Rhetoric and Media Studies within the Schools of Communication and Journalism & Media Studies at SDSU. Through his critical essay, “Hussle and Motivate: An Afrocentric Understanding of Constitutive Rhetoric Toward Economic Empowerment in Nipsey Hussle’s Victory Lap Album”, Dr. Smith evaluates Nipsey Hussle’s’ Victory Lap Album (artifact) through the intersection of identity, Afrocentricity & constitutive rights (critical lens); wherein he dissects the storytelling of Nipsey Hussle as a means to communicate an “identity of economic prosperity” for his audience (Smith, 2023). Through this rhetorical analysis Dr. Smith is able to interpret multiple social & cultural perspectives that interact between an artifact and a certain contextual paradigm; further amplifying the conversation and applying Communication theories to decipher the communicator, the receiver, the message and the medium being utilized.
Professor & Director of the School of Communication, Dr. Heather Canary has another exemplary tenure. Whether it's teaching COMM 300 (Conceptualizing Communication), 490 (‘off-campus’ Internship), 496 (Experimental Topics) and 499 (Special Study) or completing her own research in organizational, family & health communication, Dr. Canary strives to engage within the Communication critical discourse community in such a way as to be inspirational to any scholar that discovers her. Most importantly she is a mentor & guide to multiple graduate level students while completing their masters theses, directing scholars in their research and ensuring the highest standards of rhetoric are maintained (Canary, 2025) Alongside her catalog of personal research she is also the Principal Investigator (PI) for multiple grant initiatives at SDSU, including: “The School of Communication Iterative Approach to Curriculum Revision” (2021-2023), “Initiative for Strategic Communication and Learning” (2019-2022), and “Mapping the Genetics Communication Circuit: Genetic Counseling, Family Conversations, and Information Seeking Behaviors” (2018-2024). Through her continued effort Dr. Canary proves time-and-time again that her presence is critical within the School of Communication.
There are many opportunities for scholars to get further involved with the School of Communication at SDSU. An example of an extracurricular activity & a student organization that are available are the Aztec Forensics Speech & Debate Team and Lambda Phi Eta (LPH) respectively. John Loo, Interim Director of Forensics writes about the SDSU Speech & Debate Team; “we believe that our Forensics program provides an intercollegiate competitive experience that has lasting positive impact in the way our students view their own capabilities and skills to chase and achieve their ambitious dreams!” This idea, along with the team's mission statement: “Dedicated to developing a community of courageous advocates, critical thinkers, and compassionate competitors” gives a glimpse of the perspective this team shares (Speech & Debate, 2025). Along with traveling & competing at a collegiate level, Communication scholars will be given the opportunity to put their skills & knowledge to the test in live debates that will better prepare them for future circumstances of necessary reasoning.
Founded in 1985 and recognized nationally in 1994, LPH is the Official Communication Honors Society of the NCA. With over 500 chapters nationally, and a “mission that includes promoting academic excellence in communication studies, fostering interest in the communication field, facilitating discussions and exchanges of ideas, and building strong relationships between faculty and students” (Student Organization). The purpose of the organization is, “recognizing, fostering, and rewarding outstanding scholastic achievement in the field of communication” (Lambda, 2025). Gain personal notoriety through association with such prestigious organizations.
If your only concern is a job or career after graduation, then fine… Here are some industry analytics & statistics for graduates with a Communication degree. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 55% of those employed within the Communication Industry require a Bachelor’s degree, while 24% of scholars achieved an advanced degree. The median wage was $65,000 and 32% of graduates were in an occupational group labeled “other” (2023). Forbes lists “10 Careers in Communication You Should Consider” as: Communication’s Director, Public Relations Specialists, News Analysts/Reporters & Journalists, Editors, Writers & Authors, Market Research Analysts, Marketing/Social Media & Human Resource Managers and Broadcast Announcers & Radio DJs (2025). The purpose in sharing such a wide range of perspectives & data is to illustrate the expansive potential that a Communication degree brings. Envision the future that may come to form from all this engagement; all because you joined your critical discourse community: Communication, at SDSU.
Analysis of Scholarly Ethos: Dr. Smith’s Hustle & Motivate
The article Hustle and Motivate: An Afrocentric Understanding of Constitutive Rhetoric Toward Economic Empowerment in Nipsey Hussle’s Victory Lap Album by Dr. Damariyé Smith sets an ideal precedent for scholarly ethos and how to establish rhetoric with an audience. Utilizing constitutive rhetoric, a theory that views language as a tool for creating & shaping collective identities rather than simply persuading a pre-existing audience, as a framework & lens for his argument, Dr. Smith formulates a powerful argument for his readers. He explains, “by coupling theorizations of Afrocentricity and constitutive rhetoric and its impact on identity formation for [Nipsey’s] listeners,” (Smith, 2023) he is able to elucidate how Nipsey utilized his platform as a means to shape & influence identity & economic empowerment through language & communication. Dr. Smith shared this work in the Journal of Black Studies as a means to connect his thoughts on constitutive rhetoric with a community in which he resonates and has a strong cultural tie. This article is a bridge between the fields of communication, cultural studies & rhetoric in-and-of itself; utilizing his mastery of all three backgrounds Dr. Smith develops a line of reasoning that is simple to comprehend and more difficult to deny. The analytical lens that will be deployed to support this claim is two fold: first we will utilize Teresa Thonney’s “Conventions of Academic Discourse” and Jeffrey Walker’s “Investigating Arguments.” Although some of these concepts intertwine & overlap, the main goal will be to distinguish between his employment of each, and how they coincide to establish scholarly ethos. Dr. Damariyé Smith establishes trust through his response to previous research which empowers his authoritative tone. Furthermore, he communicates attitudes & values directly, along with a cultural grounding that serves as a cornerstone for his credibility. This analysis of scholarly ethos will dive deeper into the strategies that strengthen Dr. Smith’s credibility and deliver a powerful message about Afrocentric & economic empowerment that can be discovered in Victory Lap.
As I previously stated, Dr. Smith created a piece that is at the intersection of Afrocentricity, constitutive rhetoric, identity and hip-hop and as such, there are many conversations & theories to cite & engage with so as to further establish his credibility. One of the strongest examples that I recognized incorporating each of these concepts is thus: “the rhetorical tradition of Hip-Hop has emphasized related topics to constitutive rhetoric, such as Black identity, politics, and resistance through discursive cultural productions of authenticity and the notion of ‘keepin’ it real’ (Armstrong, 2004; Fraley, 2009; Hess, 2005; Rubin, 2016).” (Smith, 2023) However, the entire organization of this paper revolves around “previous works”, and firmly rooting the reasoning within the overall conversation at large. Each section is specifically designed to incorporate the conversation that is already being had about his subject matter and the lens that he chose, which he then leverages as a means to make for more validated reasoning. Some examples of the sections are: Public and Academic Commentary on Nipsey and His Album, Hip-Hop and the Rhetoric of Economic Empowerment, along with Intersections of Identity, Afrocentricity, Constitutive Rhetoric, and Hip-Hop. Within each of these sections Dr. Smith is able to effortlessly engage with previous research and the conversation regarding his artifact & rhetorical lens. By engaging in this conversation with other scholars he is able to further establish his credibility as a formative scholar and an authoritative figure on the subject matter. He projects this expertise within his tone & dialectical approach; “...while the studies mentioned above offer insights regarding Nipsey Hussle, rhetorical attention to his discourse, particularly regarding his emphasis on community based economics and financial literacy, is absent.” (Smith, 2023) As he so eloquently explains where the discourse has been lacking he also gives his audience a view into what his argument truly is. Between his balance of cultural comprehension and the respect to hip-hop tangentially aligned with his assertive claims regarding Nipsey’s direct influence on his audience, he displays a command of the topic to be rivaled.
Utilizing direct language Dr. Smith advocates that Nipsey Hussle’s lyrics & songs were instrumental in influencing attitudes & values; “[utilizing] these songs as case studies to explore how Nipsey rhetorically empowers his listeners to embrace an identity toward economic & financial freedom.” (Smith, 2023) These direct statements regarding the attitudes & values of Nipsey and his audience are a direct challenge to the status quo and that which is expected from hip-hop music and the community in which it derives. In conjunction with his understanding of hip-hop and the language Nipsey utilized to inspire his audience, Dr. Smith grounds his work in an ethical & culturally grounded perspective. By incorporating such a strong frame of reference from both lived experience & scholarly research, the Afrocentric lens lends itself to enhance the credibility of the entire piece. By bringing focus to such an inherently vital piece of the puzzle, Dr. Smith is able to seamlessly move between a position of scholar & advocate; developing a sense from his audience that he in-fact has an unshakeable scholarly ethos. This combination of argument-building strategies & academic conventions creates a complimentary foundation wherein Dr. Smith exemplifies scholarly ethos. This tandem delivery of powerful perspectives has a direct effect on his credibility & audience trust, creating a platform that is sturdy & sound in reasoning, with little by way of disagreement necessary.
By responding to what others have said and adopting a position of authority Dr. Smith is able to effectively establish credibility through “academic conventions”. Simultaneously, his ability to communicate attitudes & values with direct statements that are based in cultural grounding is a powerful means by which he builds trust with his target audience. Through his approach of cultural relevance Dr. Smith is able to expand the traditional notions of academic credibility, offering scholarly insight into a field that is not always viewed with such rigor. By integrating a deep cultural identity into this work, we are able to understand the broader implications that Nipsey Hussle’s Victory Lap album held amongst his contemporaries. Overall, Dr. Smith has created a solid argument by blending academic authority & cultural authenticity which in and of itself drives the scholarly ethos that garners the trust & respect of his audience. By the end of reading this article, there is little-by-way of room to challenge the topic being presented. The credibility of this article and its author are established from the very beginning of the work and are maintained throughout utilizing a multitude of the strategies we have discussed in class. This is a pristine example of scholarly ethos and how to apply the blueprint of credibility to establish audience trust.
